Order Strigiformes

Do Owls Use Torpor? Winter Thermoregulation in Free-Ranging Pearl-Spotted Owlets and African Scops-Owls

            Many birds’ gets to regulate the body temperature below the normothermic levels, and this does define such birds as heterothermic. The regulation takes place during the rest phase of the bird. The regulation takes to occur at different rates depending on the mass body mass. The climate of the semi-arid areas gets to have the less and irregular unpredictable rainfall. The torpor takes applied in such climates by the endotherms birds for the regulation and balancing of the energy. However, it should get noted that birds only get to use the torpor on natural conditions.

            Based on eth research on the free-living pearl-spotted owlets (Glaucidium perlatum) in the hot desert of Kalahari in South Africa, it gets observed that the pearl-spotted owlets took to be active and heard calling at day and night and easily radio with involvement in many activities around the sunrise and sunset. On the other hand, it gets observed that the African scops-owls are active only at night and also easily radio at the time of 30 minutes before the sun rises. The free-ranging pearl-spotted owlets take to maintain the temperature of 36.5 C and 41 C, meaning they do not exhibit torpor for winter thermoregulation. In the African scops-owls, the temperature of the skin gets to reduce to the below normothermic limits that get to mean that the slight representation of the shallow torpor. Furthermore, it gets revealed that the owls exhibiting the torpor take to have the energetic stress during the cold winters. Therefore, the African Scops-owls used the torpor for winter thermoregulation, unlike the others that are flexible with the climate change.

COMPLEX EVOLUTION OF BILE SALTS IN BIRDS

            Bile salts define the end products of metabolites of cholesterol that is essential in the shaping of the gut and lipid digestion. Bile acids take to combine with the hydroxyl that offers some resistant to deconjugation caused by the intestinal bacteria. However, the resistant cannot get felt with the application of the bile acid alone without the conjugation with the hydroxyl group at C-23.teh bird family species does have different bile salt profiles while the nonavian species of three reptiles families had the bile salt profiles.

            Bile salts were at a stable level within genera; however in an approximate of seven genera species had the variation in bile salt structures. The seven genera species include the chlamydera (bowerbirds), the crax (curassows), Coracias (rollers), Dendrocydera (Whistling ducks), pteroglossus (aracaris), Dacula (pigeons), and the ptilinopus (fruit doves). The bile salts were stable within only 13 bird species although five of the species had a slight varying in the bile salts profiles that used to overlap. The bile salts did also vary within the Falconiformes with the availability of several bile salts found within the respective species. The Strigiformes species had CA and CDCA bile salt variants according to the study in the Strigidae (true owls) and 16α-hydroxy-CDA in the Tytonidae (Barn-owls). Bile acids get categorized as C27 bile alcohols, C27 bile acids, the stem C24 bile acid (chenodeoxycholic acid), the -hydroxylated bileB1 acids-hydroxylated bileA, 16 acids, and the 23R-hydroxylated bile acids. It gets also depicted that bird diet gets to have an influence on the bile salt profile.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) Outbreaks in Wild Birds and Poultry, South Korea

            The article gets to handle the outbreak of the Highly Pathogenic Influenza (HPAI) virus of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) subtype in the Republic of China, Russia, and Mongolia between the years 2009 and 2010. The outbreak of the virus gets diagnosed in the poultry and the human of which the threat persistent with the spread. The most affected were the wild birds and the domesticated waterfowl’s species of order Anseriformes. The disease in the South Korea got realized with the cause being the spread from the migrating birds that happened to introduce the virus to the nation. According to the study within the article, fourteen bird species were potentially susceptible to the virus of subtype H5N1. The species affected with the virus included the order Galliformes that defines the chickens, quail that had clinical signs and died suddenly. The order Anseriformes experienced a reduction in the egg production and also died suddenly. The same infection was to order Strigiformes, and the birds were found dead with the detection of infection from the healthy mallards and the feces. The virus did kill the birds on sudden occasion sand the spread was on high rate because the most birds that get highly infected lacked the amino acid substitutions. According to the study on the done, the amino acids gets to provide some resistance to amantadine and the absence of the substitutions got associated with the increase of the H5N1 virus in the mammalian hosts. The virus spread was rampant that the southern Asia region was affected, and the essential mitigation for the virus is the early detection of the virus outbreak and undertaking a rapid response takes to control the virus introduction to the poultry from the migratory birds. The practice further gets to prevent the farm to farm spread.

Evolutionary Patterns of MHC Class II B in Owls and Their Implications for the Understanding of Avian MHC Evolution

            Owls take to have a special mode of evolution about the other avian species. The article takes a focus on the central role of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in understanding the adaptive immune system and the overall evolution of the order Strigiformes. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) gets discussed in the diverse lineage of the vertebrates, and it gets defined that the birds get to differ from the mammalian norm. The evolution with the mammalians gets to happen on its own which can only get realized in three species of birds that get closely related. Therefore, the paper provides the evidence of the orthology persistence to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes.

            Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) takes to play a crucial role in the vertebrate resistance to diseases, but that is not the case it gets to provide an outstanding pattern of molecular evolution which the interest for the study. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) evolution gets characterized with the frequent activities of duplication that defines birth, the genes loss that means the death that gives the formation of the birth to death evolution.

            A study got through the extraction of the RNA by the method of TRIzol from the fresh blood samples of one individual from a group of 10 owl species. The study got conducted and of the MHCIIB Amplification, cloning and the sequencing of the blood samples. It resulted in the identification of the distribution of polymorphism for the functional MHC genes. The phylogenetic relationships of the owl based on the MHCIIB sequences were drawn to provide the evolutionary histories of the exon 2 and exon 3. The MHCIIB sequences got recombined to facilitate the understanding of the evolution of the Owls.

Seropositivity and Risk Factors Associated with Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Wild Birds from Spain

            Toxoplasma gondii is a type of zoonotic intracellular protozoan parasite that gets to affect the many warm-blooded animal species with the birds being at the higher risk mostly. The article takes a study to the identification of the seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii infection and the risk factors that facilitate the Toxoplasma gondii infection in the wild birds from Spain. The warm-blooded animals get to be the intermediate hosts of the Toxoplasma gondii infection which get to affect the intake of foods and water contaminated with sporulated Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. The Toxoplasma gondii infection is quite prevalent in avian species of [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9]. The undertaking of a study of Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity in birds is useful in assessing the contamination of the ingestion of the oocysts.

            Studies of the Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity have shown the high level of prevalence of the Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in most of the wild birds. From the analysis of the studies, the associated risk factors that get to associate with the Toxoplasma gondii infections includes the sex, age, order, species, habits, dietary and the geographic origin of the individual. Serum samples got taken from 1079 wild birds of 56 different species where the order Strigiformes had a total of 260. The studied included the placement of the blood into the serum and centrifuged after clotting of the mixture. Then, the examination took place in the employment of the modified agglutination test (MAT). The results of the examination were that the overall seropositivity against the Toxoplasma gondii was 26.1% representing a total of282 birds that tested positive. Order Strigiformes showed the highest level of seropositivity of 44.0% representing some 259 Owls in comparison to other species.

Colour polymorphism in birds: causes and functions

            The article takes to have the study of the evolutionary causes of colour polymorphism and the adaptive functions of colour polymorphism. The study takes into the account the ecological and morphological features of the polymorphic species. The occurrence of the colour polymorphism was observed to be very high in the species of Strigiformes, Ciconiiformes, Cuculiformes and the Galliformes. Polymorphism takes to have different morphological, individual behavioral and the physiological traits. Colour polymorphism is a phenomenon widely spread in the many animal taxa and identified vertebrates. The class Aves is a popular class that can get ornithologists to undertake the survey for the better study of the colour and pattern-morphism in birds.

            The article reviewed the hypothesized mechanisms that could have facilitated the production and maintenance of the colour polymorphism in the relation to the potential functions. Colour polymorphism undertaken in birds is quite a rare phenomenon that within the study it involved only a 3.5% of the whole figure of bird species. Though, it should get noted that about 61% of the bird orders gets to contain polymorphic species. According to the study of the colour polymorphism in birds, the occurrence of the phenomenon was very high in order Strigiformes with a rate 33%, 12% of Cuculiformes, 9.5% of Galliformes, and 9% of Ciconiiformes. The owls and the nightjars are closely related orders, but the relationship of Owls with Ciconiiformes has a big gap. Mating of the species had the influence over the colour polymorphism. The sexually dichromatic species had a low level of colour polymorphism. The dietary as a factor also had an influence on the phenomenon as the colour polymorphism is higher in vegetarian taxa.

Sarcocystis falcatula–associated encephalitis in a free-ranging great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)

            A free-ranging great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) got admitted to The Raptor Center rehabilitation clinic containing some severe neurologic signs and symptoms that got unresponsive to supportive care. The animal could not fly despite the good conditions of the nutritional state that was weighing 1.54 kg. The Owl was active in all specification; however, the animal was tilting the head to the left. Based on the physical examination of the Owl, it got revealed that the animal had a small corneal scar without the signs for neither trauma nor otitis externa. Before the Owl died, the various tissues of the free-ranging great horned Owl got extracted and subjected to histological examination.

            During the undertaking of a post-mortem to the free-ranging great horned Owl, the significant related macroscopic lesions got undetected since the spleen was in a normal size. The outcomes of the histological examination to the free-ranging great horned Owl revealed that the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brainstem got affected by the granulomatous meningoencephalitis. The further examination of the free-ranging great horned Owl revealed that the animal was free of the protozoal megaloschizont associated with the infection. Therefore, the protozoal associated organisms got undetected in the free-ranging great horned Owl tissues that got examined. The results of the experiments and examination taken on the Owl the results are consistent with the Sarcocysts falcatula that differ from Sarcocysts neurona. The free-ranging great horned Owl is a bird of prey that makes the transmission of the Sarcocystis falcatula infection either by the ingestion of the sporulated sporocysts or ingestion of muscle sarcocyst. The diet for the free-ranging great horned Owl located in the North America contained Sarcocystis falcatula sarcocysts that take to harbor the intestinal sporulated sporozoites.

The evolution of plumage polymorphism in birds of prey and owls: the apostatic selection hypothesis revisited

            The article takes to have the understanding of the origin and the provision of the maintenance of the polymorphism in natural animal populations. The article then takes to have the testing to whether the apostatic selection hypothesis gets applied to the understanding of the plumage polymorphism of the birds of prey and the Owls. Apostatic selection hypothesis takes to employ the ecological and life history variables of animals for the determination of the plumage polymorphism understanding. Therefore, the aim is to determine the association between population size of the birds of prey and owl and polymorphism.

            The phenotypic polymorphism is independent of sex and age variables found in the fish, reptiles and birds and takes to restrict itself to the parts of the body. Different morphs can get selected based on the directional trait selection though the process gets difficult to the challenges. The plumage polymorphism is common in bird taxa of birds of prey (order Falconiformes), the Owls (order Strigiformes) and the skuas (order Stercorariidae).It takes to apply the apostatic selection hypothesis to understand the plumage polymorphism because the technique is appealing as it gets a new predator with the ecosystem without the realization of the prey.

            The research got done on 237 species of family Accipitridae and 58 species of order Strigiformes. The birds of prey had a 30% degree of polymorphism with he degree increasing with reproduction rate, the migration pattern, niche breadth and range size but reduced with the incubation. Owls had 50% degree of polymorphism that primarily increased with the migration pattern but decreased with body size, body weight, wing length, incubation, prey size, and hunting method. Therefore, it is clearly shown that the polymorphism gets related to the population size of both the Birds of Prey and Owls. Also, the apostatic selection hypothesis does not support the maintenance of the plumage polymorphism.

Multiple independent origins of mitochondrial gene order in birds

            The vertebrate animals exhibit same 37 genes of mitochondrial genomes that take to vary in the circular DNA molecule arrangement. It gets suggested that the mitochondrial gene order has the potential as the phylogenetic markers associated with the higher-level vertebrate taxa. The phylogenetic marker features get the biologists to develop the interest for the understanding of the genome evolution. The article provides evidence of parallel evolution in mitochondrion gene order character for animals with the show of the physical constraints on the mitochondrion gene order.

            During the analysis, the genomic DNA got separated from the animal muscle tissue as the mitochondrial DNA gets amplified by the aid of the PCR. In the case, only the DNA associated with the mitochondrial-rich muscle tissues were applied with the exemption of the DNA from the nucleated red blood cells. The examination of the DNA samples got examined for the distinguishing the features of the nuclear copies.

Owl (order Strigiformes)

            Order Strigiformes is a member of the primary nocturnal raptors of a homogeneous order found all over the world. The Owl gets regarded as a symbol of intelligence that presaged events. Furthermore, the owl relation with the nocturnal existence, the creature gets regarded as a symbol that gets associated with the occult all over the global. In the middle ages, the owl got used to mean darkness and associated with evil before the coming of Christ. Also, as it gets to act as a symbol for darkness, it gets to represent or rather symbolize the non-believer that gets to dwell in the evil world of darkness.

            Undertake of scientific study to the order Strigiformes species is quite tricky because the animal takes to have the operations in the silent night time with the relation to the results of ecology, behaviour, and the taxonomy of the many species all over the world remains poorly understood.

            The size of the owl is almost the same as the size of their active daytime counterparts, the hawk. They get to have a measure of 13cm to 70 cm in length with wingspans of between 30cm to 200cm. The order Strigiformes that gets to define the owls are carnivores meaning they only feed on other animals with the rodents beings their most common prey; they also feed on insects. The Owl appears with a flat face, large and forward facing eyes with a small beak that is hooked. It has a short tail and rounded wings with large feet of sharp talons that takes after the species of birds of prey (Order Falconiformes). The Owls (0rder Strigiformes) are of two families, the families’ totals to 182 species. The primary families are the Family Tytonidae and the Family Strigidae. The species are found all over the world on all continents except Antarctica continent.

Use of immunohistochemistry (IHC) in the detection of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in experimentally and naturally infected birds

            The study had the objective to apply and standardize the immunohistochemistry (IHC) to diagnose the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). The samples of experiment got done within the pigeons (Columba livia) and the chicken (Gallus gallus). The experiment involved the infection of the sample group with the pathogenic samples of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and observation made through the provision of the results documentation.

            Newcastle disease is a highly contagious and viral widespread disease that gets to infect birds, and the disease gets rated with a high mortality. The disease affected the different avian species and caused by the Avian Paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV 1) which is a member of genus Avulavirus from the family Paramyxoviridae.

            Based on the previous surveys, almost 236 of free-living species from the 27 out of the 50 orders of bird are reported to be susceptible to the Newcastle disease. It gets presumed that the source of the Newcastle disease virus to the infection of the poultry is from the wild birds since the disease is commonly believed to get found in them.

            The immunohistochemistry (IHC) got applied to 15 pigeons, and 15 chickens were only the adult birds got used. It got found that ten birds from each species got infected with the Newcastle disease. The remaining got inoculated with the PBS pH of 7.2 for the negative controlling of the infection. After the standardization of the experiment with a sample 46 birds with the immunohistochemistry (IHC) technique, it was found that the adults died of the unknown causes. Order Strigiformes had some nine behind the order Passeriformes that had 18, and order Caprimulgiformes had only 1 case.

Owl

            An owl is a common name for the nocturnal birds of prey that are found all over the world. The Owls take to have the take after of the hawks that are short-necked with the only difference drawn from the eyes. The eyes of the Owl are directly forward within the forehead and surrounded by the radiating disk of feathers. The structure gets to give the owl a unique appearance with a short tail within the feathers. the order Strigiformes species were regarded to have the appearance of some studious intelligence of which the owls get regarded as a symbol of wisdom in the previous times. Owls can see during the day, but they get to see in partial darkness, and it gets realised that they are active during the night as during the day they get to spend the whole time sleeping. This has had the challenge of the undertaking of the study over the Owls. They have a soft and fluffy plumage that makes them noiseless as they get to fly. The order (Strigiformes) of owls get subdivided into two primary families; the barn owls (family Tytonidae) that define the owls with the structure of a heart-shaped face, and the typical owls (family Strigidae) that take to comprise the many species of the order Strigiformes. Owls do feed on animals with the major prey being the rodents, insects, toads and frogs, and also the small birds. Just as the Hawks, Owls do regurgitate pellets of the indigestible matter. The order Strigiformes gets to have a length range of 15cm to 61 cm, a wingspread of 120 cm to 150 cm based on the species and habitat. Each region of the world has a defined species of the order Strigiformes that inhabits. Owls get classified in the phylum Chordata, a subphylum Vertebrata, of class Aves, with order Strigiformes, of families Tytonidae and Strigidae.

Order Strigiformes natural history

            The ecology of the order Strigiformes defines the species standing the chance to utilize all the habitats all the way from the grasslands and the tundra to the dense woodlands habitat and the rainforest. The distribution of the Owls gets affected by the suitability of the nesting sites than the consideration of the prey of the order Strigiformes. The prey gets not considered because the Owl’s prey gets defined by the body size of the Owl and the abundance of a given potential prey. The Owl takes the prey by swallowing it as whole where the indigestible material gets regurgitated in the form of pellets. The indigestible materials may be feathers, fur, and even bones.

            The behavior of the Owls takes the focus to sound. The sound is essential for Owls especially in mating and the territorial defense. Owls takes to camouflage, the daytime immobility and silent flight makes it difficult for owls to see each and get seen by the natural enemies. The sound of the owl is less melodious as compared to the other bird species. The species takes to communicate through sounds such as during the dissemination of food to the young ones, ejecting the young ones from the territory. The reproduction and development of the owls take to have the building of nest in trees, caves and the utilization of the hawk nests. The animal gets to stay together but not during the breeding, and the egg laying gets timed until the young ones get independent of the parents, and they get to lay many eggs than the other diurnal raptors. The young ones develop in different phases until they get rejected from the territory. The Owls take to use the feet for perching and grasping the press that get to define the locomotion of the order Strigiformes species.

Mycobacteriosis in Wild Birds: the Potential risk of Disseminating a Little-known Infectious Disease

            Avian Mycobacteriosis is essential to the support of the animal and human health. However, birds do play a very useful role in the mycobacterial species ecology and the species movement. Thus, the article takes to have the review of addressing the role played by the birds in the spread of the avian Mycobacteriosis in human kind and overall animal population. Birds get involved in the dispersal of the microorganisms by acting as the biological and mechanical carriers of the mycobacterium. At the moment, the status of Avian Mycobacteriosis is unknown to the nature and even the dispersion of the Avian Mycobacteriosis by the bird species is also still unknown. Te article takes to provide the role played by the birds for the potential risk of infection by the Avian Mycobacteriosis

            Mycobacteria are non-sporulated bacteria with a lipid-rich cell wall that takes to form smooth colonies when cultured in the solid medium. The Mycobacteria’ highest concentration in the lipid cells causes the resistance to the immune defense system. the Mycobacteria avium complex (MAC) takes to contain the opportunistic pathogens that are capable of causing diseases to humankind and other animals.

            Avian Mycobacteriosis is a disease that gets to affect all birds worldwide, either free-living or staying in captivity reported highest in the temperate zones of the northern and tropical areas. The mycobacterial infection incidence in the birds is still unknown and gets to differ depending on the species, age, and housing conditions of the birds. The infection prevalence also is not yet defined; however, the captivity birds are highly affected as compared to wild free birds. The infection is reported to be susceptible to many bird species such as the Raptors (2, 9, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36, 37 and 38). The coming into contact with the birds takes to cause the transmission of the infection to the animals and the humankind.

The distribution of Barn Owl nest sites about altitude in southwest England

            Barn owls Tyto alba gets described of the habitat and distribution in Britain as the lowland birds. The species breeding distribution gets affected and influenced by the altitude limit that the animal can stay. The identified altitudinal limit from the previous study is the altitude measure of between 250m to 300m above the sea level. The Barn owls Tyto alba gets to breed at slightly higher altitudes in the southwest of England than any other place in the United Kingdom. The increasing snow cover gets to limit and influence the distribution of the Barn Owls Tyto alba. The study got undertaken in the consideration of scattering nests according to the altitude. The highest recording was at 384m above the sea level with a total of six nest-sites recording an altitude of 300m above the sea level. It gets observed that the distribution to the south-west is low since the Barn owls Tyto alba gets to nest at higher altitudes with the current upper altitudinal limit within the region being at 400m above the sea level.

References

Batey, C. (2013). The distribution of Barn Owl nest-sites in relation to altitude in southwest England. 

Burri, R., Hirzel, H. N., Salamin, N., Roulin, A., & Fumagalli, L. (2008). Evolutionary patterns of MHC class II B in owls and their implications for the understanding of avian MHC evolution. Molecular biology and evolution, 25(6), 1180-1191.

Burton, J. A., ed., (1974). Owls of the World

Cabezón, O., García-Bocanegra, I., Molina-López, R., Marco, I., Blanco, J. M., Höfle, U., ... & Almería, S. (2011). Seropositivity and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds from Spain. PloS one, 6(12), e29549.

Carrasco, A. D. O. T., Seki, M. C., Mineo, T. W. P., Peres, J. A., Knychala, L. M., Alves, M. H., ... & Pinto, A. A. (2015). Use of immunohistochemistry (IHC) in the detection of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in experimentally and naturally infected birds. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 9(45), 2225-2231.

Fowlie, M. K., & Krüger, O. (2003). The evolution of plumage polymorphism in birds of prey and owls: the apostatic selection hypothesis revisited. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 16(4), 577-583.

Galeotti, P., Rubolini, D., Dunn, P. O., & Fasola, M. (2003). Colour polymorphism in birds: causes and functions. Journal of evolutionary biology, 16(4), 635-646.

Hagey, L. R., Vidal, N., Hofmann, A. F., & Krasowski, M. D. (2010). Complex evolution of bile salts in birds. The Auk, 127(4), 820-831.

Sherry Roberts is the author of this paper. A senior editor at MeldaResearch.Com in cheap term papers if you need a similar paper you can place your order from top research paper writing companies.